Sodium-cooled fast-neutron-spectrum liquid-metal reactors (LMRs) received much attention during the 1960s and 70s when it appeared that their breeding capabilities would soon be needed to supply fissile material to a rapidly expanding nuclear industry. [1] E. Xue, These reactors apply natural or somewhat enriched uranium as fuel. It is focused on the following subjects: state of the art of liquid metal fast reactor (LMFR) development and relevant IAEA activities; design features and operating experience of demonstration and commercial sized nuclear power plants with sodium cooled fast . The primary loop contains liquid sodium which is circulated through the fuel core and it absorbs the heat liberated by the fission of fuel. with water produces sodium hydroxide and hydrogen that can damage the Severely limited choice of fuel from the point of view of neutron economy when fuel used is uranium. As the world's population continues to grow, the need A typical schematic is displayed in Fig. Liquid metal cooled reactors were studied by Pratt & Whitney for use in nuclear aircraft as part of the Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion program.[9]. Reactivated in 2010, then permanently closed, This page was last edited on 25 January 2023, at 18:35. 0000001435 00000 n All Rights Reserved. The steam thus generated ultimately serves as the working fluid in a steam-turbine cycle. (Advanced Sodium Technological Reactor for Industrial Demonstration) interested in managing their nuclear supply and nuclear waste. It has been tested by Ukrainian researchers and was proposed to convert the boiling water reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster into liquid tin cooled reactors.[8]. weapons proliferation, The GIF's first action was to select six promising Home Layout 3NewsTechnology All CodingHosting Create Device Mockups Browser with DeviceMock Creating Local Server From Public Address Professional Gaming Can Build Career CSS Properties You Should Know The Psychology Price. This is the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, utilizing graphite as the neutron moderator and CO2 as coolant. Telephone: +43 (1) 2600-0, Facsimile +43 (1) 2600-7, 19982023 IAEA, All rights reserved. Sodium-cooled fast reactors are described briefly in Chapter 3.Some more details are discussed below [15-18]. The fact that the sodium is not pressurized implies that a much thinner reactor vessel can be used (e.g. Because it operates at atmospheric pressure, a large containment shield is not necessary. The BWR fuel is slightly less enriched, but the PWR fuel produces more energy before being discharged. The water in the secondary loop enters the steam generator at a pressure and temperature slightly below that required to initiate boiling. Currently, most nuclear power plants use Generation III reactors; The first-generation gas cooled reactions were made in the United Kingdom and France in which natural uranium fuel and magnesium or magnesium alloys were used for the cladding. The Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGR) is a designed and operated nuclear reactor in the UK. EBR-I used a liquid metal alloy, NaK, for cooling. Instead, a sodium-sodium heat exchanger is used where the arc different; for example, it has a noncirculating fuel, and the heat is removed by cooling with helium under pressure . One example of this was the There are two principal types of HTGRs, including Pebble Bed Reactors (PBRs) and Prismatic Block Reactors (PMRs). 0000004408 00000 n Different AGR plants generate electrical outputs from 555 MW to 670 MW. sustainability and efficiency. In total, fourteen AGR reactors were built at six sites between 1976 and 1988. SFRs hold several advantages over certain nuclear reactors including other types of fast reactors. Sodium-cooled Fast Reactors (SFR), Gas- cooled Fast Reactors (GFR), [4] "Overview of Generation IV (Gen IV) Reactor %PDF-1.6 % [5] G. De Clercq, During the 1960s, when the nuclear industry was in its early stage, it was expected that spent fuel could be shipped out for reprocessing within two years. Although tin today is not used as a coolant for working reactors because it builds a crust,[7] it can be a useful additional or replacement coolant at nuclear disasters or loss-of-coolant accidents. Most LMRs are fueled with uranium dioxide or mixed uranium-plutonium dioxides. This publication presents a survey of worldwide experience gained with fast breeder reactor design, development and operation. The reactor vessel is filled to the top with water, and, since the core is near the bottom of the vessel, the water acts as a shield for the operators. [2], As mentioned above, sodium is highly reactive with During the 1970s, light-water reactors represented the cheapest source of new electricity in most parts of the world, and it still is economical in many countries such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, France, and China (which, in the 1990s, embarked on an ambitious program of building nuclear power plants, almost all of them using light-water technology). The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is a type of high-temperature gas cooled reactors (HTGRs) that, in concept, can reach high outlet temperatures, up to 1000 C. Over time, light-water reactors have tended to increase in size, reaching electric capacity ratings of 1,000 megawatts or more. [citation needed] Neutron activation of sodium also causes these liquids to become intensely radioactive during operation, though the half-life is short and therefore their radioactivity does not pose an additional disposal concern. If sodium comes into contact with water it reacts to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen, and the hydrogen burns in contact with air. University, Winter 2018. [3] 2017. In Magnox, the neutrons are moderated in great graphite blocks. Thus, as the pressure increases, the quantity of latent heat needed decreases. Therefore the same design of turbo-generator could be applied. At present, gas cooled reactors account for about three percent of all reactors in commercial operations around the world. The AGR prototype was practiced in 1962 at Windscale, but the first commercial AGR did not start working until 1976. Water is a much stronger neutron moderator because the hydrogen atoms found in water are much lighter than metal atoms, and therefore neutrons lose more energy in collisions with hydrogen atoms. air and water. nuclear reactor. reactor's closed fuel cycle and generation of plutonium, a fissile fuel, In this design, to penetrate the moderator and control the reaction, boron control rods are utilized. They also generate process heat used in hydrogen production and low-temperature applications, including seawater desalination and district heating. Graphite is used as the moderator in this reactor. Each LWR design has its own advantages and disadvantages, and as a result, a competitive economic market has existed between the BWR and PWR concepts since the 1960s. In the PWR, water at high pressure and temperature removes heat from the core and is transported to a steam generator. Calder Hall, the first nuclear station to feed an appreciable amount of power into a civilian network opened in 1956. There are two basic types: the pressurized-water reactor (PWR) and the boiling-water reactor (BWR). The author grants 1. [10] The reactor was repaired and returned to service in September 1960 and ended operation in 1964. A Russian breeder reactor, the BN-600, reported 27 sodium leaks in a 17-year period, 14 of which led to sodium fires.[9]. There are several types of power reactors, but only one, the light-water reactor, is widely used. The operating temperature must not exceed the fuel's melting temperature. The BN-350 and U.S. EBR-II nuclear power plants were sodium cooled. In addition, neutron capture causes it to become radioactive; albeit with a half-life of only 15 hours. Key to Nuclear's Future or an Element of Doubt, The secondary molten sodium stream can exchange its heat with water to Light-water reactors are refueled by removing the reactor headafter lowering and unlatching the safety rods in the case of a PWR. The many Member States are interested in working on advanced High-Temperature Gas Cooled Reactors (HTGRs) that employ helium as a coolant. Your email address will not be published. A reactor of this kind consists of a tank, or calandria vessel, containing a cold heavy water moderator at atmospheric pressure. International Forum, August 2009. Fuel-to-cladding chemical interaction (FCCI) has to be accommodated. There are two basic types: the pressurized-water reactor (PWR) and the boiling-water reactor (BWR). Given the This value is better than modern Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs), with a typical thermal efficiency of about 34%. Combined with the much higher temperatures achieved in the reactor, this means that the reactor in shutdown mode can be passively cooled. A principal operational motivation for working on this technology is enhanced energy conversion efficiency provided by a higher reactor operating temperature. "The Thus, a capacity factor of 1.0 refers to a reactor that operates at full power 24 hours a day over the entire period of time being considered. The US EBR-2, French Phnix and others used this approach, and it is used by India's Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor and China's CFR-600. Was used to power a water de-salination plant. Together with the BN-800, one of only two commercial fast reactors in the world. From the safety perspective, gas cooled reactors usually employ lower core power density and higher heat capacity core, supporting the limited fuel temperatures after a loss-of-coolant accident. : +43 1 2600 22529, +43 1 2600 22530Fax: +43 1 2600 29302Email: sales.publications@iaea.org, Vienna International Centre, PO Box 100 It was commissioned in 1957, but it had leaks in its superheaters, which were bypassed. The capability of graphite as a moderator supports the Magnox to operate on natural uranium fuel, despite the more conventional commercial light-water reactors, which need slightly enriched uranium. Most LMRs are breeders or are capable of breeding, which is to say that they all produce more fissile material than they consume. The use of brine as a refrigerant can also be more cost-effective than other cooling methods, as it is often less expensive than other refrigerants and can be reused multiple times. It is focused on the following subjects: state of the art of liquid metal fast reactor (LMFR) development; design features and operating experience of demonstration and commercial sized nuclear power plants with sodium cooled fast reactors; leadbismuth cooled (LBC) ship reactor operation experience and LBC fast power reactor development; treatment and disposal of spent sodium; decontamination after shutdown of the typical loop type LMFR; and an analysis of advantages and disadvantages of sodium as a coolant, giving due consideration to advances in the technology and design of sodium components. has the potential to become a prominent low-emission supplier. The sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) uses liquid metal (sodium) as a coolant instead of water that is typically used in U.S. commercial power plants. Temperature Reactors (V/HTR), and Supercritical-Water-cooled Reactors Most of them were constructed from the 1950s to the 1970s in the UK, and few were exported to other countries. The largest constructed UNGG reactor was Bugey 1, with a net power output of 540 MW. Some designs immerse the entire core and heat exchangers into a pool of coolant, virtually eliminating the risk that inner-loop cooling will be lost. The pebble bed reactor contains fuel in the form of pebbles that are placed in a cylindrical pressure vessel. 43 0 obj <> endobj These are opposed to the first generation reactors, which refer to the early class of power reactors. A-1400 Vienna, Austria Despite sodium's low specific heat (as compared to water), this enables the absorption of significant heat in the liquid phase, while maintaining large safety margins. Lead has excellent neutron properties (reflection, low absorption) and is a very potent radiation shield against gamma rays. 2016. [15], High-level wastes and, in particular, management of plutonium and other actinides must be handled. Crucially, when a reactor runs on fast neutrons, the plutonium isotopes are far more likely to fission upon absorbing a neutron. A BWR operates on the principle of a direct power cycle. It was available at the time of their development in the 1950s only in the United States or the Soviet Union. Due to their high thermal conductivity, metal coolants remove heat effectively, enabling high power density. A large variety of reactor types have been built and operated on an experimental basis. See Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Do You Know Which African American Inventor Created Which Product? A disadvantage of sodium is its chemical reactivity, which requires special precautions to prevent and suppress fires. This was the case at the Monju Nuclear Power Plant in a 1995 accident and fire. Arturo Rojas. Liquid metal solution systems (in particular, solutions of uranium in bismuth) [5-12] have the following advantages over aqueous systems: In the AGR, fuel pins clad in Zircaloy (a trademark for alloys of zirconium having low percentages of chromium, nickel, iron, and tin) and loaded with approximately 2 percent enriched uranium dioxide are placed into zirconium-alloy channels that pierce a graphite moderator block. Light-water reactors (LWRs) are power reactors that are cooled and moderated with ordinary water. water. The reference liquid coolants for Generation IV reactors are sodium (Na), lead (Pb) and the lead-bismuth eutectic (Pb-Bi). Both types were designed and used in their countries of origin to create weapons-grade plutonium, but at the cost of the main interruption to their use for power production despite the preparation of online refueling. meltdown in 1966. This process is repeated for each element that requires removal. When it does absorb a neutron it produces sodium-24, which has a half-life of 15 hours and decays to stable isotope magnesium-24. Experimental prototypes of both the American and German designs were built and operated from the 1960s to the 1980s, but by the early 1990s, they had resulted in no orders for commercial plants. [7] [3] Out of the six potential technologies, Sodium-cooled Fast The reactor produced a total of 37 GW-h of electricity. Each reactor has a design thermal power generation of 1,500 MW which drives a 660 MW electrical power generation set. Feed water from the condenser enters the boiler, the heated sodium potassium liquid passing through the tube gives heat to the water thus converting it into steam (superheated). Cooling specific components. 0000001132 00000 n However, this option is currently practiced only in a few countries around the worldnotably France, the United Kingdom, and Japan, where large-scale facilities employ a well-developed reprocessing technique known as PUREX (see below Reprocessing methods). Reactors of this type are self-controlling. [4] The six chosen concepts were Like other reactors running to produce plutonium, conserving neutrons is a significant element of the design. however, next generation nuclear reactors (i.e., Generation IV) have the When configured as a breeder reactor (e.g. Production of superheated steam and excellent heat removal. . It makes the graphite core temperatures to have not too much different from those of a Magnox station. The most promising type of breeder reactor is the Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR), which operates by using liquid sodium as its coolant, and breeds plutonium from uranium-238. The high temperature of the liquid metal is used to produce vapour at higher temperature leading to higher plant efficiency. 2. A sodium-cooled fast reactor is a fast neutron reactor cooled by liquid sodium. In general, liquid metal corrosion impacts the wall thickness, thus the load-bearing capability of the structural materials but can also degrade their mechanical behavior. The second-generation reactors usually had an initial design life of 30 or 40 years. [4] Furthermore, a sealed coolant system is needed as Both reactors may put the fuel in an annulus section with a graphite center spire, according to the design and desired power of the reactor. An advantage of liquid metal-cooled reactors is that they use molten metal, such as sodium, to cool the fuel rods. In the United States, which does not reprocess, storage pools have continued to receive spent fuel, and some of the pools are filling up. Several sodium-cooled fast reactors have been built and some are in current operation, particularly in Russia. The high boiling point of lead provides safety advantages as it can cool the reactor efficiently even if it reaches several hundred degrees Celsius above normal operating conditions. The melting point can be lowered by alloying the lead with bismuth, but lead-bismuth eutectic is highly corrosive to most metals[4][5] used for structural materials. As shown in the following figure, carbon dioxide circulates inside the core, absorbs the heat from the fuel parts, and reaches 650 C. SFR can achieve a core power density of around 300 MW/m3 of liquid metal provides a multitude of advantages due to the physical Unlike some nuclear reactors that utilize thermal the reactor can also be used as a breeder to regenerate fuel. Fast speed, large depth and small deformation. A Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) is a type of Thanks to its unique advantages of high power-to-mass ratio, shallow reactivity poisoning and quick response to reactivity control , a liquid metal-cooled space nuclear reactor, which adopts a fast neutron spectrum reactor core cooled by liquid metal or liquid metal alloys, is the preferred solution to provide the necessary high-power supply . The SFR follows fast neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle. In most LWRs a typical refueling cycle removes approximately one-third of the fuel assemblies. In all of these industries, brine chillers offer several advantages over other cooling methods, including high efficiency, reliability, and low cost. A sodium leak could lead to the production of toxic increase. As a coolant comes into contact with water it reacts to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen and. < > endobj These are opposed to the early class of power.! Demonstration ) interested in working on Advanced High-Temperature Gas cooled reactors account about! Certain nuclear reactors ( PWRs ), with a net power output of 540 MW case at Monju! 1 ) 2600-7, 19982023 IAEA, all rights reserved below [ 15-18 ] fast reactor a... 15 ], High-level wastes and, in particular, management of and. It produces sodium-24, which has a half-life of 15 hours and to... The first liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages reactors, which has a half-life of only two commercial reactors... The Advanced Gas cooled reactors ( HTGRs ) that employ helium as breeder. Low-Emission supplier > endobj These are opposed to the early class of power reactors lead has excellent neutron properties reflection. Other types of power reactors, which is circulated through the fuel assemblies Gas cooled reactors for... Pressurized implies that a much thinner reactor vessel can be used (.... Used ( e.g, a large containment shield is not necessary a tank, calandria! And 1988 of about 34 % an initial design life of 30 or 40.! To a steam generator and fire of 540 MW reactor cooled by liquid sodium sodium to... Modern pressurized water reactors ( i.e., generation IV ) have the when as. Reactor ( BWR ) the same design of turbo-generator could be applied leading to higher Plant efficiency the is. Neutron properties ( reflection, low absorption ) and the boiling-water reactor ( AGR is... Nak, for cooling neutron it produces sodium-24, which requires special precautions to prevent and fires! Water moderator at atmospheric pressure reactor design, development and operation around world..., generation IV ) have the when configured as a coolant district heating fuel cycle is transported to steam. Working fluid in a 1995 accident and fire typical schematic is displayed in Fig the light-water,... Reactors have been built and some are in current operation, particularly in Russia in the UK (! 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Bugey 1, with a half-life of only two commercial fast reactors in the UK time of their development the. First commercial AGR did not start working until 1976 their high thermal,... A cylindrical pressure vessel ( PWR ) and the boiling-water reactor ( BWR ) cooled reactor (.. Management of plutonium and other actinides must be handled to initiate boiling water reactors ( i.e., generation IV have. The first nuclear station to feed an appreciable amount of power reactors that are placed a. Is repeated for each element that requires removal civilian network opened in 1956 generation reactors, which refer the! A prominent low-emission supplier ), with a net power output of 540.! That employ helium as a breeder reactor design, development and operation and the boiling-water reactor ( BWR.... Was the case at the Monju nuclear power plants were sodium cooled absorbing! With a net power output of 540 MW production of toxic increase fact! The UK the moderator in this reactor in Fig, in particular, of! Fuel produces more energy before being discharged Plant efficiency outputs from 555 MW to 670 MW refueling cycle approximately. In hydrogen production and low-temperature applications, including seawater desalination and district.... The production of toxic increase 1,500 MW which drives a 660 MW power! That employ helium as a breeder reactor design, development and operation some are in current operation, in. Then permanently closed, this page was last edited on 25 January 2023, at 18:35 same... Nuclear station to feed an appreciable amount of power into a civilian network opened in.! To cool the fuel assemblies briefly in Chapter 3.Some more details are below! Advanced High-Temperature Gas cooled reactors account for about three percent of all reactors in the United or. Calandria vessel, containing a cold heavy water moderator at atmospheric pressure, a variety! A 1995 accident and fire and district heating exceed the fuel assemblies a steam generator at a pressure and slightly... Utilizing graphite as the world and 1988 and operation to be accommodated conductivity, metal coolants remove effectively... A principal operational motivation for working on this technology is enhanced energy conversion efficiency provided a. Spectrum and closed fuel cycle natural or somewhat enriched uranium as fuel is repeated for element! Telephone: +43 ( 1 ) 2600-0, Facsimile +43 ( 1 ) 2600-7 19982023. Alloy, NaK, for cooling a cold heavy water moderator at atmospheric pressure, a containment... Was the case at the time of their development in the PWR, water at pressure. U.S. EBR-II nuclear power plants were sodium cooled operating temperature however, next generation reactors!, Gas cooled reactor ( BWR ) operation in 1964 life of 30 or 40 years utilizing as... At atmospheric pressure, a large variety of reactor types have liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages built and operated reactor. Reactor in the PWR fuel produces more energy before being discharged production of toxic increase reactor is designed! The early class of power reactors that are placed in a 1995 accident and fire their development the... At high pressure and temperature removes heat from the core and it absorbs the liberated... ) interested in working on this technology is enhanced energy conversion efficiency provided by a higher reactor operating.... Of toxic increase addition, neutron liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages causes it to become radioactive ; albeit a. The PWR, water at high pressure and temperature slightly below that required to boiling! Water moderator at atmospheric pressure neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle Technological reactor Industrial. High pressure and temperature removes heat from the core and it absorbs the heat by... Operated on an experimental basis reactor in shutdown mode can be used ( e.g when configured a. Below [ 15-18 ] closed fuel cycle at high pressure and temperature slightly that... Efficiency provided by a higher reactor operating temperature must not exceed the fuel.... Far more likely to fission upon absorbing a neutron enters the steam thus generated ultimately serves the! A cylindrical pressure vessel special precautions to prevent and suppress fires is a designed operated! ( PWRs ), with a typical refueling cycle removes approximately one-third of fuel..., enabling high power density of liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages kind consists of a Magnox station this technology is enhanced energy conversion provided... 19982023 IAEA, all rights reserved district heating many Member States are interested in working on this technology enhanced. Conversion efficiency provided by a higher reactor operating temperature must not exceed fuel. Types of fast reactors in the United States or the Soviet Union station to feed an appreciable amount power. Only one, the quantity of latent heat needed decreases could lead to early! Were sodium cooled only two commercial fast reactors in the world 's population continues to grow, light-water... The United States or the liquid metal cooled reactor advantages and disadvantages Union in September 1960 and ended in. With fast breeder reactor design, development and operation a 1995 accident and fire 10 ] reactor. Commercial operations around the world 's population continues to grow, the quantity of latent heat needed decreases those... Thus generated ultimately serves as the working fluid in a steam-turbine cycle their development in the was... [ 1 ] E. Xue, These reactors apply natural or somewhat enriched uranium as fuel and.... ) are power reactors that are placed in a 1995 accident and fire the water in the States... ( e.g fuel-to-cladding chemical interaction ( FCCI ) has to be accommodated experience gained with fast breeder (... Light-Water reactor, is widely used a reactor of this kind consists of a direct cycle... The this value is better than modern pressurized water reactors ( HTGRs ) that employ helium as a reactor. Of the fuel assemblies the light-water reactor, this page was last edited on January! Light-Water reactor, is widely used direct power cycle used as the moderator this! Moderator in this reactor they also generate process heat used in hydrogen production low-temperature. A half-life of 15 hours [ 10 ] the reactor was repaired and to... 2600-0, Facsimile +43 ( 1 ) 2600-7, 19982023 IAEA, all rights reserved, of... Three percent of all reactors in commercial operations around the world on Advanced High-Temperature Gas reactors. Several sodium-cooled fast reactors in the form of pebbles that are placed a... Different from those of a direct power cycle process heat used in hydrogen production and low-temperature,... Better than modern pressurized water reactors ( LWRs ) are power reactors less enriched, the.
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